ANCIENT ROME
Bernstein, Michael André."'O Totiens Servus': Saturnalia and Servitude in Augustan Rome"Critical Inquiry, 13.3(Spring, 1987): 450-474. JSTOR. Web. 16 Sept 2012.
- Berstein’s article is principally an analysis of a poem set in Roman Saturnalia (Horace). In order to approach the poem, he first sets up an argument for reading political poetry with context and theme, rather than purely for form as a literary work. He examines the function of the Saturnalia festival to modern readers and scholars as a nostalgic longing for an idealized past, calling it a “modern critical fiction” (452). He purports that even ancient writers like Horace used Saturnalia as a literary device that ignored most of its actual practices. Though the arguments of this very scholarly-toned article are all fueled toward criticism of literary scholarship and a new reading of Horace’s satire in better context, it did lend me a reminder to look critically when reading other sources. There are some well-researched references to the actual Roman festival and belief systems surrounding the god Saturn that may be enlightening but the thrust of this article is not relevant to my research.
- This is an incredibly comprehensive website that includes a breakdown of the Julian calendar with descriptions of the major festivals. It has a scholarly tone but uses accessible language. The page on Saturnalia puts the festival into specific historical context (describing how it was limited or expanded by various Emperors.) The page doesn’t seem to have a thesis, rather lays out the facts of timing, location and the longevity of the festival as an important part of the Roman year. The author also includes some description of festivities and uses quotes from Roman writers, i.e. Lucian: “During My week the serious is barred; no business allowed. Drinking, noise and games and dice, appointing of kings and feasting of slaves, singing naked, clapping of frenzied hands, an occasional ducking of corked faces in icy water—such are the functions over which I preside.” This will be useful as a quick summary of the ‘facts’ to compare to other sources
- Chapter 8, “Comedy and Satire” is made up of a thorough timeline through the development of Roman Comedy, from the “Greek Precursors” (195) through a detailed look at Plautus and Terence and into Satire. Richard outlines the careers of major playwrights and satirists and explores forms influenced by Roman satire, including several pages of Martial’s epigrams (216-219). He argues these forms as the parents of Western comedy, impacting “a long line of storytellers” (222). This can be a useful reference when considering comic forms or ideas of comedy leading to the jests of the medieval fool.
Scullard, H.H. Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1981. Print.
- Outlines the entire Roman year and its ceremonies, including Saturnalia (205-207), linking the god Saturn to seed-corn and his celebration to "the last sowing of the year” (206). Scullard describes the life of the festival, from temple dedication and festival ritual practices until the rise of Christianity. A concise and historically-based explanation.
CARNIVAL
Burke, Peter. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. Aldershot, Hants, England: Scholar Press; Brookfield VT. 1994 (Reprint.Ch 7). Print.
- Burke paints a lively portrait of Carnival and similar ritualized festivals all across Europe and for several centuries. Rich with description and evocative imagery, the chapter is chock full of useful information yet rather schizophrenic as it bounces around the centuries and the nations of Europe. I appreciate the connections Burke draws between festivals in different times and places but I suspect him of over-simplifying, and many of his references aren’t given citations. With that in mind, it’s a great source with richly detailed examples of many types of inversions and rituals involved in the traditional Carnival season during the 17th century and before.
- Goethe was in Rome for the Carnivals of 1787 and 1788, and this description was published in 1789 as an illustrated booklet. My primary first-hand account, Goethe likens Carnival to Saturnalia, and describes a lively “tumult” (15) which, he says, is put on by the people rather than the state. His descriptions include lively street scenes, masks, games, sale of sweets and the election of the king of “Pulcinellos” (25). An excellent resource for a firsthand look at several days of traditional festivity through the eyes of an outsider.
Humphrey, Chris. The Politics of Carnival: Festive Misrule in Medieval England. Manchester:Manchester University Press, 2001. Print.
- This book takes a close and careful look at the “festive culture of 15th and 16th century England.” Humphrey discusses current scholarship on carnival that considers festivals mainly to illuminate wider social roles and identifies the trend to see festivities as a “safety-valve.” His first chapter takes a look at secondary source material, beginning with scholarly approaches to the subject, cautioning against generalization and calling for a more imaginative and inclusive approach. He then discusses the popularity of Bahktin’s work on Rabelais (who doesn’t?). His second chapter proposes a new approach, which he guides his reader through very thoroughly, discouraging the easy habit of “slotting the evidence into the categories of an pre-existing model,” (38). He guides us through his new analysis and finally addresses the politics of carnival, suggesting that meaning is not universal but is much more in the hands of chance. He goes on to consider two very specific festivals framed by his model. This text is primarily about modes of analysis, and therefore will not aid me much. He does include a very useful table in his introduction of “festive misrule in medieval England,” outlining seasonal feasts and giving examples of the corresponding activities or feasts (4)
- This chapter opens by summarizing 20th century scholarly interest in carnival as an origin for Shakespeare’s fools, specifically focusing on “Bakhtin’s work on Rabelais,” which she calls a “treasury” (1) for those wishing to look into various aspects of Carnival. Pikli begins with a survey on the origins of carnival festivals in ancient Greece and Rome and Europe in the Middle Ages, including some reference to the recurring themes of death and regeneration; the grotesque body and the inversion of hierarchy in festivals across Europe, which I find to be among the most interesting aspects of the carnivalesque. She also keeps the attempts by the church and other authorities to suppress festivities (when they weren’t promoting and organizing them) in the foreground of her discussion. Pikli then moves on to specifically examine Falstaff as an embodiment of the carnivalesque. A comprehensive summary of Carnival in nine pages, this is a nicely concise source for introductory purposes.
MISRULE & INVERSION
Humphrey, Chris."THE WORLD UPSIDE-DOWN IN THEORY AND AS PRACTICE: A New Approach to the Study of Medieval Misrule" University of York: Centre for Medieval Studies. Web. 30 September 2012.
- This paper poses questions about current scholarly approaches to the study of festive misrule, a popular subject among Medieval performance studies. Scholarly writing draws upon urban evidence, looks at calendar customs or examines festal culture in general. The dominant idea is that misrule was a "safety-valve" for medieval culture but Humphrey calls for a re-examination. Inversion is always symbolic, and festivals aren't the only cultural manifestation of this transgression. Considering diversity of form allows diversity of interpretation. This paper was a precurser to his book.
Pandian, Jacob. "Symbolic Inversions. An Interpretation of Contrary Behavior in Ritual"Anthropos, 96.2 (2001): 557-562. JSTOR. Web. 16 Sept 2012.
- This article examines examples of symbolic inversion in eastern African and northern Indian traditions through readings of articles published in the mid-1960s. Pandian points out the crucial in stating that “symbolic inversions in the ritual context represent certain individuals as having certain qualities or properties that are not normally…associated with them” (557). In the two festivals examined, it is women who temporarily “acquire significance” as “sacred symbols” (557). The author puts forward an argument that perusal of recent ethnographies shows ritual inversion exists “universally” in various forms by breezily listing off practices across the world (including circumcision and clitoridectomy) without analysis. This is followed by a brief survey of scholarly writing on inversion that does include analysis specifically through raising questions about the meaning or social purpose of inversion, before moving on to the African “Gogo Ritual” and Indian “Festival of Love” as primary examples. After a rushed summary Pandian concludes “every participant of symbolic inversion (in the ritual context) acquires significance as a sacred or elaborating symbol” (561). This sentiment as well as the questions Pandian raises could certainly illuminate a meaning for inversion going beyond the “safety-valve” idea.
MEDIEVAL CELEBRATIONS:
Harris, Max. Sacred Folly: A New History of the Feast of Fools. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011. ebrary at University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries. Web. 30 Sept 2012.
- I have considered Chapter 7, “The Feast of the Ass,” in some detail. Harris begins by cautioning readers that a great deal of convoluted scholarship on specifically “twelfth-century Beauvais” has colored interpretations of the Feast of the Ass as a clerical free-for-all, despite its “rootedness in the liturgy” (74). I appreciate his reminder to consider the feast in the context of solemnity and ritual, but his argument raises questions for me since it does not consider that all the carnival activities were sanctified in their time, even the most perverse and excessive. The chapter includes some interesting text of hymns with translation, but then goes on to follow the trail of scholarly confusion that surrounds the feast. Harris utilizes a biting tone and scolds past scholars for misreading the facts. The Latin translation and Harris’ carefully researched description of the mass and feast will be useful.
Mackenzie, Neil. The Medieval Boy Bishops. Leicestershire: Matador, 2012. Print.
- Though tracing the origins of the boy bishop ceremony is not possible, Mackenzie agrees with others that it seems to have its roots in Roman festivities. Distinct from the Feast of Fools, the boy bishops had their feast on the day of Holy Innocents. Winter was a gloomy time, so no wonder medieval Europeans filled it with feasts and fests. The feast of the Boy Bishops gave an opportunity for merriment and the chance to see senior clerics humbled. Though seemingly mild and well rooted in liturgy, the feast still saw plenty of resistance over the years from church authority. Mackenzie traces the practices of the feast, with a detailed chapter on the sermon itself, and outlines major differences from the Feast of Fools. With a light tone and easy reading, this book holds a lot of key descriptions of a less bawdy inversion practice in medieval Europe.
Miles, Clement E. "Masking, The Mummers’ Play, The Feast of Fools, and The Boy Bishop"Christmas in Ritual and Tradition. 1912. Internet Sacred Text Archive. Web. 30 Sept 2012.
- This work is “concerned with the popular Christmas” (as opposed to the customs of kings) as it is celebrated in the fields and towns, from “rustic Christmas mummers” to boy bishops and the Feast of Fools. Primary focus is on England and France in the Middle Ages. It has an archaic tone at times, casually referencing “heathens” and seemingly raising an eyebrow at the “blasphemous” festivities that made it through history (even “within the walls of the church”). However it contains some useful descriptions, including a detailed account of the Feast of Fools in France (especially the customs involving “the Ass who gave to it the not uncommon title of asinaria festa,”) and an overview of the history of boy bishops.
Wright, Thomas, ed. The archaeological album: or, Museum of national antiquities. London:Chapman and Hall, 1845. Google eBooks. Web. 30 Sept 2012.
- Though clearly an old and dusty text, this somewhat archaic book is an interesting survey on Anglo-Saxon antiquities. Of particular interest is the section entitled "The Burlesque Festivals of the Middle Ages" (155) which opens with a discussion of Roman Saturnalia. Also of interest within this section are sub-chapters entitled "The Feast of the Ass" (158) and "The Feast of Fools" (161). With context in mind, this text could prove very useful; it is fun to read and includes valuable descriptions of these festivals which are so pertinent to my research.
CLOWNS AND FOOLS
Koepping, Klaus-Peter. "Absurdity and Hidden Truth: Cunning Intelligence and Grotesque Body Images as Manifestations of the Trickster" History of Religions, 24. 3 (1985): 191-214. JSTOR. Web. 16 Sept 2012.
- Primarily discussing literature and myth, the author investigates the Trickster across cultures in a way that might be useful in consideration of the meaning of inversion. A particularly interesting idea is explored concerning the creation of an image of "counter-universe," which he identifies as “a protest” showing "the real world off as what it is or seems to be" (194). Koepping mainly unifies Tricksters through expression of "crooked thinking" or "body grotesque," both of which can serve as a lens for reading into carnival and foolery. I also appreciate this work for its arguments toward the sacred function of fools. The "sacredness of rules" is also examined (203), which may be useful in consideration of festival activities (eg. The rules of Chance tied to the practice of gambling during festivals) and the role of the profane in consideration of satire.
Prentki, Tim. The Fool in European Theatre: Stages of Folly. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012. Print.
- Chapter 1: Fooling with Gods and Men opens with a great quote comparing the functions of the Trickster to the bones of Osiris, which enforces a link I want to make to ancient harvest festivals. Prentki acknowledges the ancient role of figures who provoke laughter by pointing out the absurd in the human condition. He explores the quality of folly and points to its divine origins. With ambiguity at its core, he calls the fool “holy, heroic and idiotic; both more and less than the rest of mankind” (3). He casts the fool as a border-crosser with an art for survival and looks for his manifestation across cultures, evoking Socrates and Rabelais. His arguments are not easy to follow or summarize but he is tracing the trickster toward his role on the stage, particularly looking at Harlequin and Falstaff. I like the whimsy of the chapter and the colorful evocations of the holy fool.
Townsen, John. "Chapter One: Fools, Natural & Artificial" All Fall Down: The Craft and Art of Physical Comedy. John Townsen, 2009. Web. 30 Sept 2012.
- This chapter opens with an exploration of the Hopi “Kachina” dance, and the undermining of the sacred through the presence of clowns (who are in fact a sanctified part of the ritual). Townsen goes on to introduce the fool as living “outside the laws of logic” (3) in a way that parallels the trickster in mythology. This mental ‘outsiderness’ is mirrored in appearance, in dress or grotesque physical form. He further explores the presence of sanctioned clowns in Native American cultures and compares indigenous “fool societies” with the practices of the European Feast of Fools. He writes, “when the spirit of folly was no longer welcome within the doors of the church, it moved outside, and was manifested in a secular form. In France…the creation of amateur fool societies”(9), which he parallels to “the clown societies of the North American Indians” (10). He moves on to discuss court fools and the interpretation of madness and physical deformity as “proof of supernatural forces at work” (12). He puts forward the idea that most court fools were professionals, whose position gave them license to pull pranks and undermine authority and invert status. This chapter, while not an overtly critical source, is an informative investigation into the fool across several functions and cultures that provides a good amount of history and specific examples. Strong idea that jokes cross social boundaries. It’s also the only source I have that touches on Native American cultural practices, an interesting link to make.
Welsford, Enid. The Fool: His Social and Literary History. Glouster, Ma: Peter Smith, 1966. Print.
- Generally considered the most comprehensive resource on the history of professional Fools, from court fools to the stage clowns of early history.
- Zucker examines the archetype of the clown from early-modern Europe through the Renaissance and into the 20th century. He mainly argues the clown’s role as a dualistic figure (or figures) outside the realm of common experience, and follows this type through historical festivals such as the Feast of Fools and across theatre history, especially citing the Commedia dell’Arte and Shakespeare’s Caliban as examples of the clown’s necessary and defining relationship with figures of power. The article ends with focus on the early and mid-20th century and the revitalization of the archetype by Charlie Chaplin. Zucker’s exploration of the duality of the clown; the association of the clown with the devil; and the defining of the clown as a “counter image of the sublime” (314) thus enforcing the code of power will be interesting to consider, as well as his description, albeit brief, of the Feast of Fools.
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